The (Na++K+-ATPase (NKA; the Na pump) is a transmembrane enzyme responsible for the active reciprocal transport of Na+ and K+ ions across the plasma membrane of all animal cells (1, 2). This key enzyme is composed of two different subunits. The α subunit (˜113 kDa) contains the binding sites for ATP, Na+ ions, K+ ions, and allosteric sites for inhibitors and activators, and is capable of catalyzing the hydrolysis of ATP as an essential energy source to transport 3 Na+ ions out of the cell and 2 K+ ions into the cell against membrane ion gradients (1, 2, 6, 7). All tissue-specific isoforms of the NKA α subunit (α1, α2, α3, α4) share the same catalytic function and active ion transporting properties to maintain cell membrane potential, control cell volume, and provide a driving force for the secondary membrane transporters to import glucose, amino acids, and other nutrients into the cell (8-11). The smaller beta (β) subunit (˜35 kDa) is a glycoprotein (12-15). Isoforms of NKA β subunit (β1, β2, β3) do not have binding sites for ATP or Na+/K+ ions, and therefore do not operate the catalytic process and Na+/K+ active transport of the enzyme (6).
Because ionic transport via sodium pumps creates both an electrical and chemical gradient across the plasma membrane, the NKA is especially important for the proper function of the cardiac muscle. Abnormalities in the number or function of NKA are thought to be involved in a number of pathologic conditions, such as heart disease and hypertension. For example, several types of heart failure are associated with significant reductions in myocardial concentrations of NKA and low levels of NKA activity.
Additional diseases associated with significantly reduced NKA activity include diabetes, lung diseases, liver diseases, urinary tract diseases, hemorrhagic shock, gastrointestinal diseases including colitis, cataracts, Alzheimer's disease, eye disease, aging, cancer, kidney diseases, obesity and diseases of the nervous system.
Due to its association with heart disease, NKA has been a target for the treatment of congestive heart failure, such as through the administration of digitalis and related cardiac glycoside drugs (3-5). Cardiac glycosides have the ability to increase the force of myocardial contraction in a dose-dependent manner (positive inotropic effect) via direct inhibition of NKA (16). Such action inhibits the excretion of cellular sodium, thereby increasing intracellular sodium and calcium through increased activity of the sodium calcium exchanger. The increased intracellular calcium, in turn, increases cardiac contraction. Thus, circulation is increased in patients suffering from a weakened heart muscle, such as those with congestive heart failure, receiving these drugs.
However, cardiac glycosides have narrow therapeutic indices and their use is frequently accompanied by toxic effects that can be severe or lethal. The most important toxic effects, in terms of risk to the patient, are those that involve the heart (e.g., abnormalities of cardiac rhythm and disturbances of atrio-ventricular conduction). Gastrointestinal disorders, neurological effects, anorexia, blurred vision, reduced renal function, nausea and vomiting are other common cardiac glycoside-induced reactions.
Other drugs used to treat heart failure also have dangerous side effects. For example, diuretics are associated with fatigue, low blood pressure, and poor kidney function. ACE inhibitors are associated with persistent cough, kidney problem, fatigue, and dizziness. Beta blockers are associated with fatigue, low blood pressure, dizziness, chest pain, and headaches.
Consequently, there is a need for new agents which overcome the drawbacks associated with known agents.